Food safety is one of the main buzz in the present time. As of now food safety was limited to only human and pet food with little concern of livestock feed. But with time now consumers are not only becoming more aware of the quality aspects of livestock rearing but also on the quality of inputs being fed to reared poultry & cattle. One important aspect of prepared feed quality is the stability of the final product.

Authors PicChanges in physical, chemical or microbiological properties of feed can be considered loss of stability. Water activity (Aw) is one of several important parameters that affect stability of livestock feed. Water activity is a measure of the free moisture in a foodstuff. It is also defined as the quotient of the water vapor pressure of the substance divided by the vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature.

The water activity scale extends from 0 (bone dry) to 1.0 (pure water) but most foods have a water activity level in the range of 0.2 for very dry foods to 0.99 for moist fresh foods.

Water activity need not to be confused with moisture content. Moisture content is the combination of free and bound moisture. Free moisture can be explained as water that is available to participate in physical, chemical and biological reactions.

Water activity plays a vital role in the microbial stability of ingredients and final livestock feeds. Bacteria, molds and yeast require water for growth; and every microorganism has a minimum water activity below, which it will not grow.

In the previous part, we discussed the Water Activity stability in terms of degradative reactions rates and microbial growth limits as a function of water activity along with different scenario of damages due to uncontrolled water activity. This is the concluding part of the article.

Storage of soymeal in bulk warehouse

Water activity may affect physical properties such as moisture migration, texture and etcetera.

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Moisture migration occurs when there is a aw difference between components or with the surrounding environment as the system comes to an equilibrium. Undesirable textural changes can result from moisture migration in multicomponent product. Water migrates from region with high aw to region with low aw until an equilibrium of aw is achieved but the rate of migration depends on structure or diffusion process (o’Connor et al., 2017). Effect of moisture migration with humidity on aw can be illustrated in moisture sorption isotherm as shown in Figure 7. Figure 7 shows how aw changes as water is adsorbed into and desorbed from a product at equilibrium relative humidity and constant temperature. In practice, this moisture sorption isotherm maybe impractical to use as it is complex and unique for each product. Besides, the relationship between moisture content and water activity changes when temperature varies and also when there are any variations in material composition with a modifying effect.

Figure 7. A schematic representation of a sorption isotherm with a hysteresis between the adsorption and desorption isotherms (Airaksinen, 2005).
Figure 7. A schematic representation of a sorption isotherm with a hysteresis between the
adsorption and desorption isotherms (Airaksinen, 2005).

Water activity affects the biochemical reactions and physical properties of the product.
Uncontrolled aw in soybean meal (SBM) storage can cause non-enzymatic browning reaction during processing and moisture migration in the storage. Due to moisture migration, it leads to caking of SBM in storage. Besides, water activity has the ability to influence both the rate and color of non-enzymatic browning reaction, which is also known as Maillard reaction. Maillard reaction (MR) is a biochemical reaction between reducing sugars and amino acids to form Maillard reaction products (MRP) and further progress to Advanced glycation end products (AGEs). MR takes place even at room temperature but at a slower rate. The rate of reaction increases when time and temperature increases, and at a humidity of 40-70%. MR is mostly responsible for the deterioration in protein quality, especially lysine is the most susceptible amino acid (Tanaka at al., 1977). SBM is very vulnerable to MR over storage in a hot and humid tropical condition. SBM has high percentage of lysine, arginine, cysteine and tryptophan which easily react with reducing sugars, resulting in MR and the degradation of amino acids (Ibáñez et al., 2020). Since SBM is widely used as a feed ingredient in feed formula, MR is an unavoidable issue in moist heat feed pelleting process. There are inconsistencies in performance of birds fed with mash and pelleted feed which is highly due to the quality of SBM (Araba and Dale, 1990). A good indicator to determine the degree of MR is the colour change in product. Generally, as water activity approaches 0.70, the rate of Maillard reaction increases. When aw is higher than 0.70, Maillard reaction slows down because the reactants are diluted by too much free water.

Figure 8. Picture on the Left shows caking issue in SBM stored in a flat warehouse. Picture on the Right shows the effect of different stages of Maillard reaction in SBM.
Figure 8. Picture on the Left shows caking issue in SBM stored in a flat warehouse. Picture on the Right shows the effect of different stages of Maillard reaction in SBM.

Figure 9: Chemical Composition

Figure 10: Chemical Composition

Shipment of corn gluten meal in containers

A trial was done to monitor the effects of moisture migration and aw in corn gluten meal (CGM) during shipment from USA to the Pacific Rims.

Moisture movement creates stickyness, caking, and mobility issue on mealy material as Figure 12 (Left). However, when aw is controlled, the corn gluten meal has a very different free-flowing characteristic as observed in Figure 12 (Right).

Figure 12. Picture on the Left shows caking in corn gluten meal whereas Right picture shows free flowing corn gluten meal.
Figure 12. Picture on the Left shows caking in corn gluten meal whereas Right picture shows free flowing corn gluten meal.

What is worst is that aw has increased substantially with free moisture movement, and the material gets moldy upon reaching port. See Figure 13 (Left). The treated CGM prevents free moisture movement, and aw is hence controlled at a safe level maintaining freshness and the original quality at point of loading, shown in Figure 13 (Right)

Figure 13. Picture on the Left shows crusted top layer and mold in corn gluten meal whereas Right picture shows free-flowing corn gluten meal inside the container.
Figure 13. (Left) Crusted top layer and mold in corn gluten meal. (Right) picture shows free-flowing corn gluten meal inside the container.

Quality integrity of palm kernel pellets

This trial was done to investigate the complain of staleness of products from Malaysia shipped in container to Japan and Korea. 2 MT of fresh products from the same production batch was used with 1 MT Control PKE pellets was bagged and another treated 1 MT PKE pellets bagged. All the bags are stacked on pellets and stored at the hottest areas in production for 90 days to simulate a challenge.

After 90 days, the result was astonishing. Figure 13 shows clearly the difference between control and treatment. The control group (Figure 14 Left) look discoloured, with a stale appearance, and without the aroma of PKE. The treatment group (Figure 14 Right) has a very fresh appearance, maintaining its original quality, and still has a strong PKE smell.

This is another classic case of moisture movement and activated aw compromising the chemical stability of the product. Nutrients and lipids are degraded which explains the poor quality of the control group.

Figure 14. Picture (Left) shows the control group with non-treated PKE and Picture (right) shows the treated PKE.
Figure 14. Picture (Left) shows the control group with non-treated PKE and Picture (right) shows
the treated PKE.

Water activity and moisture content in processed poultry pellet feed

A feed trial was conducted to investigate the addition and capturing of water on the processed pellet feed quality, for starch cooking/gelatinization, data shown in Figure 15. To show the effect of working on a program to capturing water, as in getting moisture from water added at the mixer plus microscopic moisture from steam into the feed chemistry. A process addressed as “positive mash hydration” (This is for the sole purpose of starch granule swelling and sufficient degree of protein denaturation). The result in starch gelatinization is later captured by feed imaging, indicating a loss of birefringence.

With the treatment feed, notice the spike on aw after water has been added at the mixer. Interestingly, the finished feed of the treatment group has a higher moisture content, but water activity is lower compared to the control group. The capturing of moisture for the purpose of starch gelatinization which in turn lock up the hydrolyzed water used in the process of starch swelling/cooking indicates the positive chemistry changes of feed processing.

Figure 15. Feed Quality parameters that were recorded during a pelleted feed trial.
Figure 15. Feed Quality parameters that were recorded during a pelleted feed trial.
Figure 16. Picture on the Left is the control group with aw of 0.68 and moisture content of 10.14%. Picture on the Right is the treatment group with aw of 0.59 and moisture content of 10.86%.
Figure 16. Picture on the Left is the control group with aw of 0.68 and moisture content of 10.14%.
Picture on the Right is the treatment group with aw of 0.59 and moisture content of 10.86%.

Conclusion

Water activity is a critical parameter in controlling the quality of feed and feed ingredient as it is a reliable indicator and predictor of chemical reactions and microbial responses in the industry. This is how we need to manage and control aw with proper grain storage, shipment of feedstuff, feed processing on both pellets and extruded feed, and handling of mash feed. This will dictate how well we face up to the challenges in keeping the quality of grain over storage, and the processed feed in post-production. A proven approach to managing and controlling aw has been established with proven results. Chasing down a moldy problem with mold inhibitors is like attempting to save a building on fire with extinguishers. The building still gets burnt and ravaged.

References:
Ahn, J. Y., Kil, D. Y., Kong, C. and Kim, B. G. (2014). Comparison of Oven-drying Methods for Determination of Moisture Content in Feed Ingredients. Asian-Australasian journal of animal sciences. 27(11). 1615–1622. 10.5713/ajas.2014.14305

Airaksinen, Sari. (2005). Role of Excipients in Moisture Sorption and Physical Stability of Solid Pharmaceutical Formulations.

Araba, M. and Dale, N. (1990). Evaluation of Protein Solubility as an Indicator of Overprocessing
Soybean Meal. Poultry Science. 69. 76-83. 10.3382/ps.0690076.

Gadient, M. (1986). Effect of Pelleting on Nutritional Quality of Feed. Proceedings of 1986 Maryland Nutrition Conference for Feed Manufacturers (USA). 73-79

Jung, H. B., Lee, Y. J. and Yoon, W. (2018). Effect of Moisture Content on the Grinding Process
and Powder Properties in Food: A Review. Processes. 6. 69. 10.3390/pr6060069

Labuza, T.P., McNally, L., Gallagher, D., Hawkes, J. and Hurtado, F. (1972). Stability of
Intermediate Moisture Foods. 1. Lipid Oxidation. Journal of Food Science. 37. 154-159.
10.1111/j.1365-2621.1972.tb03408.x

Leeson, S. (2015). Vitamin Deficiencies in Poultry. MSD Manual Veterinary Manual.

Mathlouthi, M. (2001). Water Content, Water Activity, Water Structure and the Stability of Foodstuffs. Food Control. 12. 409-417. 10.1016/S0956-7135(01)00032-9

Ibáñez M.A., de Blas, C., Cámara, L., Mateos, G.G. (2020). Chemical Composition, Protein Quality and Nutritive Value of Commercial Soybean Meals Produced from Beans from Different Countries: A Meta-analytical Study. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 267, 114531

o'Connor, L., Favreau-Farhadi, N. and Barrett, A. (2017). Use of edible barriers in intermediate moisture food systems to inhibit moisture migration. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation. 42. e13512. 10.1111/jfpp.13512.

Reid, D.S. (2007). Water Activity: Fundamentals and Relationships. In Water Activity in Foods (eds G.V. Barbosa-Cánovas, A.J. Fontana, S.J. Schmidt and T.P. Labuza). 10.1002/9780470376454.ch2

Tanaka M., Kimiagar M., Lee TC., Chichester C.O. (1977). Effect of Maillard Browning Reaction on Nutritional Quality of Protein. In: Friedman M. (eds) Protein Crosslinking. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 86. Springer, Boston, MA. 10.1007/978-1-4757-9113-6_22

Tapia, M.S., Alzamora, S.M. and Chirife, J. (2020). Effects of Water Activity (a w ) on Microbial Stability as a Hurdle in Food Preservation. In Water Activity in Foods (eds G.V. Barbosa-Cánovas,
A.J. Fontana, S.J. Schmidt and T.P. Labuza). 1002/9781118765982.ch14

Zambrano, M., Dutta, B., Mercer, D., Maclean, H. and Touchie, M. (2019). Assessment of Moisture Content Measurement Methods of Dried Food Products in Small-scale Operations in Developing Countries: A Review. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 88. 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.04.006

Food safety is one of the main buzz in the present time. As of now food safety was limited to only human and pet food with little concern of livestock feed. But with time now consumers are not only becoming more aware of the quality aspects of livestock rearing but also on the quality of inputs being fed to reared poultry & cattle. One important aspect of prepared feed quality is the stability of the final product.

Authors picChanges in physical, chemical or microbiological properties of feed can be considered loss of stability. Water activity (Aw) is one of several important parameters that affect stability of livestock feed. Water activity is a measure of the free moisture in a foodstuff. It is also defined as the quotient of the water vapor pressure of the substance divided by the vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature.

The water activity scale extends from 0 (bone dry) to 1.0 (pure water) but most foods have a water activity level in the range of 0.2 for very dry foods to 0.99 for moist fresh foods.

Water activity need not to be confused with moisture content. Moisture content is the combination of free and bound moisture. Free moisture can be explained as water that is available to participate in physical, chemical and biological reactions.

Water activity plays a vital role in the microbial stability of ingredients and final livestock feeds. Bacteria, molds and yeast require water for growth; and every microorganism has a minimum water activity below, which it will not grow.

Mold can grow at water activity levels as low as 0.61. Types of mold, temperature and water activity play important role in determining growth characteristics like Penicillium roqueforti germinated at 0.82 Aw at 25°C, 0.86 Aw at 30°C and was unable to germinate at 37°C.

Formation of mycotoxins also depends on the type of mold, substrate and storage conditions, which include pH, temperature and water activity. Mycotoxins can be formed on cereal grains such as corn and wheat. Processing temperatures can kill the mold but will not remove toxins that are already formed.

Mold contamination can also occur during storage and transport of raw material. Development of mold during milling or in storage or in transit in raw material/final product can be avoided by maintaining the final water activity under safe level.

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Moisture content has been used as a gauge to control spoilage in grain, feedstuffs, and feed stability for many years. Moisture content is, simply, the quantitative amount of water present in a substance or material. It affects the physical properties of the product, for example, density, weight, conductivity, viscosity and others (Jung, Lee and Yoon, 2018). The method to measure water content includes chemical (Karl Fischer titration), spectroscopic, conductivity and thermogravimetric analysis (Zambrana et al., 2019). In this industry, thermogravimetric analysis is commonly used to measure the moisture content, which is generally determined by weight loss upon drying (LOD). However, in this feed industry, a general practice of LOD is to set higher oven temperature of 120ºC – 130ºC which rendered this method to be inaccurate by 1-2% (Ahn at al., 2014). This is another topic which I will not discuss here.

The reason why we need to introduce water activity as a measure is because the moisture content in the system is not a reliable indicator of chemical reactions and microbial responses in feed pellets as it is only a quantitative analysis that determines the total amount of moisture present in the feed. For example, one safe product may contain 12% of moisture while the other containing just 10.5% of moisture may be more susceptible to spoilage.

Water activity (aw) is a reliable measure for quality control in feed. Water activity was once defined as the amount of “free” or “available” water in a product as opposed to “bound” water. It was easier to conceptualize but failed to define the concept of water activity. The issue is not whether the water is “bound” or “free” but rather how tightly it is “bound” within the system. The correct definition of aw would be the measure of energy status or the escaping tendency of water in a sample. It indicates how tightly water is bound either chemically or structurally. A portion of the total water content in a product is strongly bound to specific sites such as hydroxyl groups of polysaccharides or carboxyl and amino groups of proteins (Mathlouthi, 2001). Water activity (aw) is expressed as:

Water activity

It is the ratio of vapor pressure of water in a material (p), in a completely undisturbed balance with the surrounding air, to that of vapor pressure of pure water under identical conditions (po). Equilibrium relative humidity (%ERH) is the relative humidity of the surrounding where material neither loses or gains moisture at a particular temperature (Mathlouthi, 2001). For example, if we assume that the pellets reached an equilibrium with the surrounding air, then it can be said that the aw of the pellets will be larger or equal to the ERH(%)/100 of air drawn to the cooler.  aw range extends from 0 (bone dry) to 1.0 (pure water).

The commonly used equipment to measure aw is a water activity meter in which can be a benchtop equipment to be used in a lab or a portable equipment to be used in the feed mill. In a pellet feed production, feed samples from the mixer, cooler and the final bagging are collected and the aw is measured to determine the safety and quality of the feed.

There are several factors influencing the aw such as temperature, presence of solutes or a combination of both. Water activity is temperature dependent. As the temperature lowers, most products will have a lower aw. Therefore, it is crucial to measure the water activity of the pellets in an area where there are no temperature fluctuations in the surroundings. Solutes such as sugar or salt present in the system will also affects the aw as they tightly bind with water, reducing the energy status or the escaping tendency of water in a sample (Reid, 2007).

Water activity is one of the most critical parameters in determining the quality and safety of feed. This is because water solubilizes the reactants and increases their mobility in the system, both of which can leads to faster deterioration in terms of feed safety, shelf life, flavor, texture and smell. Being aware of aw in feed is very beneficial in predicting the stability and safety with respect microbial growth, chemical and biochemical reaction rates, physical properties and etcetera. By controlling the water activity, it is possible to predict potential sources of spoilage and infections, maintain chemical stability, Control non-enzymatic and enzymatic reactions rate, optimize physical properties such as moisture migration, texture and etcetera.

Water activity - stability diagram
Figure 1. Stability in terms of degradative reactions rates and microbial growth limits as a function of water activity. Adapted from Labuza at al. (1972).

While pH, temperature and other factors can affect if and how fast organisms will grow in a product, water activity maybe the most significant factor in controlling spoilage. Microorganisms have a limiting aw level below which they will not grow and aw is the one that determines the lower limit of available water for microbial growth. Even at high moisture content, if the energy status of water is sufficiently low, microorganisms cannot utilize the water to support their own growth (Tapia et al., 2020).

Water activity limits for microbial growth
Figure 2. Water activity limits for microbial growth examples of products in those ranges. Adapted from Tapia et al. (2020).

Different scenario of damages due to uncontrolled water activity

The “availability” of water in the system affects the rate of biochemical reaction such as nonenzymatic browning, enzymatic reactions, lipid oxidization, nutrients degradation, protein denaturation, starch gelatinization, starch retrogradation and supports microorganism growth (Figure 1). In general, when water activity decreases, the rate of biochemical reactions decreases. Therefore, controlling water activity is crucial in every stage of this industry, starting from grain storage, feed production to animals’ performance.

Feed stored under hot and high/low humidity

In a hot and high humid environment scenario, escaping water molecules gets trapped in the bag of feed increase the aw above 0.70 As the free water molecules condenses on the surface of the feed, the feed will grow moldy, badly degrading the entire bag of feed.

In a hot and low humid environment, the water molecules evaporate from the feed and escape out of the bag. Even though aw will not increase up to 0.70 sufficiently for microbial growth, the loss of moisture in feed will result in feed shrinkage. During this process, the free water molecules also contribute as a solvent to biochemically degrade essential micronutrients and lipids, compromising the chemical stability.

It is not about whether the feed will get moldy that dictates quality and shelf life. It is much more to a moldy problem.

Feed stored under hot and high/low humidity
Figure 3. Picture on the Left shows 50kg bag of feed stored under hot and high humidity environment while picture on the Right shows 50kg bag of feed stored under hot and low humidity environment.

Extruded fish feed stored in humid and poorly ventilated store

Double liner bag does not necessarily offer better protection to feed quality and better shelf life. The heat evaporates water molecules from extruded feed and now the free moisture gets trapped inside the bag. These moving free water molecules act as a solvent to biochemically degrade the micronutrients and lipids, compromising the nutrient and feeding value. The continue releasing of moisture from extruded feed increases the aw above 0.70, in which supports microbial growth, resulting in moldy feed.

feed stored in humid and poorly ventilated store
Figure 4. Left Picture show bags of feed under hot and humid storage without proper
ventilation. Right Picture show molded extruded fish feed stored in double lining bag.

Layer mash feed

Minerals and vitamins are highly reactive in heat and humidity. In hot tropical weather condition, once the premix portion (various essential micro-nutrients) is mixed with other raw materials in the production of mash feed, the compounded mash feed becomes a ticking time bomb. Due to activated water activities, essential micro-nutrient starts to degrade the moment it comes off the mixer. Chemical stability of the mash feed has been compromised. Why!

Many do not realize that compounded mash feed after the mixer has aw level ranging 0.70 – 0.75. As the compounded mash feed transit to the farm bin, the hot pounding tropical sun in just one afternoon can greatly instigate more moisture movement from within the feed. This increases in free moisture constantly increase aw, which can usually reach 0.85 by the time the feed reaches the feeding trough, even within 24 hours of transitioning from the mixer, farm silo bin, and to the layer house see Figure 5. Increasing aw first causes bio-degradation of essential micronutrients, life mold proliferation, and activates microbial growth once aw reaches 0.80.

This problem greatly impacts the overall egg quality (shell thickness, shell cuticle, egg yolk, egg white) and layers gut integrity (gut microbiota, digestibility of protein, ammonia/wet droppings issue)

mash feed
Figure 5. Picture on the Left shows water activity of mash feed collected from the mixer. Picture on the Right shows water activity of mash feed collected from the feed trough.

Due to the uncontrolled moisture movement, the rate of biochemical reactions increases, degrading the essential micro-nutrients such as vitamins, trace minerals and amino acids present in the feed. There are many factors which affect the stability of vitamins such as temperature, moisture, pH, oxygen, light, catalyst, inhibitors, interactions with other component, energy and time, shown in Figure 6 (Gadient, 1986). Most vitamins are stable up to three months if they are stored properly, however, once they are mixed with other components such as oxidative trace minerals in the mash feed, they start to lose their potency rapidly when exposed to moisture, air and temperature. Some of the major deficiency symptoms of water-soluble vitamins found in layer is that it affects the egg production, quality and hatchability as well as the growth and quality of chick (Leeson, 2015). Since the effect of deficiency of vitamins in hens are detrimental and vitamins are prone to destruction, quite often than exception, over formulation is a practice in poultry nutrition. Poultry breeder have put in their best recommendations based on genetics requirement with different scenarios. It did not cost much to be over-generous in the past. However, the cost of these essential micronutrients supplements has been increasing over the years. Over-formulation does not guarantee the bioavailability of vitamins to the animals.

Factors causing the loss of vitamin during storage
Figure 6. Factors causing the loss of vitamin during storage and processing in feed (Gadient, 1986).

To be continued…..

Water activity is a critical parameter not only in controlling the quality of feed but also in preservation and handling of various feed ingredients. Keep watching this space for some interesting stuff next month on raw materials preservation & handling and use of water activity as a measure.

References:
Ahn, J. Y., Kil, D. Y., Kong, C. and Kim, B. G. (2014). Comparison of Oven-drying Methods for Determination of Moisture Content in Feed Ingredients. Asian-Australasian journal of animal sciences. 27(11). 1615–1622. 10.5713/ajas.2014.14305

Airaksinen, Sari. (2005). Role of Excipients in Moisture Sorption and Physical Stability of Solid Pharmaceutical Formulations.

Araba, M. and Dale, N. (1990). Evaluation of Protein Solubility as an Indicator of Overprocessing
Soybean Meal. Poultry Science. 69. 76-83. 10.3382/ps.0690076.

Gadient, M. (1986). Effect of Pelleting on Nutritional Quality of Feed. Proceedings of 1986 Maryland Nutrition Conference for Feed Manufacturers (USA). 73-79

Jung, H. B., Lee, Y. J. and Yoon, W. (2018). Effect of Moisture Content on the Grinding Process and Powder Properties in Food: A Review. Processes. 6. 69. 10.3390/pr6060069

Labuza, T.P., McNally, L., Gallagher, D., Hawkes, J. and Hurtado, F. (1972). Stability of Intermediate Moisture Foods. 1. Lipid Oxidation. Journal of Food Science. 37. 154-159.10.1111/j.1365-2621.1972.tb03408.x

Leeson, S. (2015). Vitamin Deficiencies in Poultry. MSD Manual Veterinary Manual.

Mathlouthi, M. (2001). Water Content, Water Activity, Water Structure and the Stability of Foodstuffs. Food Control. 12. 409-417. 10.1016/S0956-7135(01)00032-9

Ibáñez M.A., de Blas, C., Cámara, L., Mateos, G.G. (2020). Chemical Composition, Protein Quality and Nutritive Value of Commercial Soybean Meals Produced from Beans from Different Countries: A Meta-analytical Study. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 267, 114531

o'Connor, L., Favreau-Farhadi, N. and Barrett, A. (2017). Use of edible barriers in intermediate moisture food systems to inhibit moisture migration. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation. 42. e13512. 10.1111/jfpp.13512.

Reid, D.S. (2007). Water Activity: Fundamentals and Relationships. In Water Activity in Foods (eds G.V. Barbosa-Cánovas, A.J. Fontana, S.J. Schmidt and T.P. Labuza). 10.1002/9780470376454.ch2

Tanaka M., Kimiagar M., Lee TC., Chichester C.O. (1977). Effect of Maillard Browning Reaction on Nutritional Quality of Protein. In: Friedman M. (eds) Protein Crosslinking. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 86. Springer, Boston, MA. 10.1007/978-1-4757-9113-6_22

Tapia, M.S., Alzamora, S.M. and Chirife, J. (2020). Effects of Water Activity (a w ) on Microbial Stability as a Hurdle in Food Preservation. In Water Activity in Foods (eds G.V. Barbosa-Cánovas,
A.J. Fontana, S.J. Schmidt and T.P. Labuza). 1002/9781118765982.ch14

Zambrano, M., Dutta, B., Mercer, D., Maclean, H. and Touchie, M. (2019). Assessment of Moisture Content Measurement Methods of Dried Food Products in Small-scale Operations in Developing Countries: A Review. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 88. 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.04.006


Previous article by Dr. Naveen Sharma:

Grain Storage Challenges In Hot Weather Conditions